EOTO 2 Reaction:

 To begin, I learnt about the Freedmen's Bureau. This agency was formed in 1865, about two months before Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to the Union. Following the Civil War, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to help freed slaves and destitute whites in the South.

The Bureau offered critical resources to communities such as food, shelter, and medical care, as well as support in the establishment of Black community schools and legal aid. They contributed to the establishment of Howard University, Fisk University, and several other institutions. The Bureau operated in 11 distinct districts, including former rebel and border states. Furthermore, all of the Bureau's offices were located in large cities.

We also learned about the Forty Acres and a Mule guarantee. This was a promise and pledge made in 1865 to allocate land to liberated Black households, with some receiving an army mule. The initiative began with Field Order No. 15.

It was also said that four hundred thousand acres which would taken from wealthier families and redistributed into sections of forty acres which would be given to pas slave families to give them a... fresh start. After months of this order being in effect, an estimated 40,000 liberated individuals lived on the redistributed land, which had been taken from affluent Confederate landowners. However, this potential quickly faded. Although the property was first dispersed, President Andrew Johnson ordered its restoration to the original owners shortly after, causing a severe setback in the Reconstruction movement.

There were other problems during rebuilding as well. For example, we covered the Ku Klux Klan, sometimes known as the KKK, and the horror they perpetrated. The Klan aspired to demolish and undo the new way of life created during the Reconstruction era. To do this, they targeted black symbols such as black schools, churches, and black-owned businesses, among others. During their tenure, almost 10% of Black parliamentarians suffered violence, with seven tragically dead. By 1870, the Klan had spread across virtually every Southern state. Many members were impoverished white Southerners, but others were attorneys, physicians, judges, and even local police officers. Even when not directly participating, many law enforcement personnel decided to ignore Klan activities, enabling the bloodshed to continue unabated. This age was marked by both development and severe problems, as seen by these presentations.

 

Trial 3 Reaction: Brown vs Board

 Brown v. Board of Education was a lawsuit in which four states, including Kansas, had statutes requiring schools to be "separate but equal." Brown challenges the notion of "Separate but Equal," contending that it violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

Brown's theories focused on the transformational effect of integration. Evidence is shown that integration helps children feel welcomed in their surroundings, improves academic achievement, and leads to greater future chances for all students. It was explained n class that African Americans should not receive any less of an education because of the facilities they are forced to be in. Not only that, but there is clear evidence that integration has lowered dropout rates among African American students, resulting in more individuals completing their degrees and being recognized in society. Kaitlyn Parker makes the news: "Children in integrated schools have higher incomes as adults, better health outcomes and lower incarceration rates."

However, the Board of Education takes a more nuanced approach, focusing on the logistical and sociological issues that arise with forced integration. They maintained that the majority of school financing comes from white neighborhoods that continue to pay taxes to keep their schools up to code. We also heard about how in order for Blacks to have 'Equal facilities,' they need to pull their weight and pay their fair share of tax money in order to build their schools up just as their white counterparts have. The dependence on Black Wall Street is used to demonstrate how African American communities may thrive in the absence of integration, as well as to demonstrate economic progress in Black houses.

The Board also expresses legitimate worries about the potential reaction and violence that may accompany forced integration. The idea that negro students would be prepared to thrive in the white education system is simply unrealistic. Integration might create a hostile climate in which Black pupils may struggle to adjust. Before we can consider educational reform, we must first address larger societal issues.

  

  

EOTO 4 Reaction:

In our final EOTO of the semester, we heard several good and negative aspects of the Civil Rights Era. The Montgomery Bus Boycott, The Little Rock Nine, and James Meredith, as well as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, were notable beneficial actions that had an influence on society. These are just a handful of the events that impacted America, both favorably and adversely.

First, there's the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The Montgomery Bus Boycott began on December 5, 1955, and lasted 381 days. It began with Rosa Parks' arrest in Montgomery, Alabama, after she refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led the African American community in a boycott of the city's buses. The boycott lasted 381 days and aimed to remove bus segregation while also highlighting the black community's economic strength. It resulted in a Supreme Court decision declaring segregation on public buses illegal, a key win in the struggle for civil rights. Next, the Little Rock Nine and James Meredith serve as major illustrations of the battle supports integration of American schools. The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine African American pupils that enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas in 1957.

Following the Brown v. Board of Education judgment. The Arkansas National Guard, first dispatched by Governor Orval Faubus to stop their arrival, resisted their integration with violence. President Dwight D. Eisenhower requested federal assistance to protect their safety and impose desegregation.

 

In 1962, James Meredith became the first African American to enroll at the University of Mississippi, making him a symbol of the struggle for racial equality. His acceptance provoked riots and demonstrations, prompting government military to step in and preserve his student rights. The Little Rock Nine and Meredith's enrollment demonstrated strong opposition to desegregation, but also made great headway in combating institutional racism.

 The Voting Rights Act of 1965, one of the most significant pieces of legislation in American history, aimed to remove legal barriers that excluded African Americans, especially in the Southern states. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Act, which barred discriminatory practices such as literacy tests and established federal monitoring in places with a history of voting suppression. The bill expanded voter registration and involvement among African Americans, a significant win in the civil rights struggle and a step towards greater political equality.

The events of the 1960s had a significant influence on both African Americans and American culture. Without these milestones, it's difficult to think where we'd be now. Without class, we would not have the opportunity to learn and reflect on the teachings taught. These incidents emphasize the importance of hard work and perseverance in achieving justice and equality.

Trial 1: State vs. Mann Reaction

Today in class, we heard the Supreme Court case of State v. Mann. The reason this case is relevant is because a white man, John Mann, shot a woman named Lydia in the back of the head. Lydia was on loan from Elizabeth Jones at the time of the murder. Lydia was attempting to flee when she was shot. 

The state fined Mr. Mann $10 for his attempted murder and assault. He opted to appeal, and the State submitted opening reasons against Mr. Mann.

Initially, the State presented the case from a theological position, citing Judeo-Christian ideals such as the belief that we were all God's children and the need of following moral rules, which are considered the foundation of America. John Mann's actions contradicted these essential ideals and indicated a disregard for them. From a theological standpoint, Mann's acts demonstrate that he is at fault and should be punished.

Furthermore, the State contended that America has persistently lagged behind the rest of the globe in terms of abolition. Slavery is a harsh deed that should not be practiced in that day and age, causing America to remain locked in the past rather than going ahead. The argument also emphasized that such violence and injustice should not be overlooked in a society that claims to uphold justice and equality.

After carefully considering all arguments, the court decided to find in favor of the defendant and ordered John Mann not to pay the $10 fine. The court’s ruling drew both praise and criticism, as it reflected the legal complexities of the time and the prevailing societal attitudes towards race and power. This case remains an important point of study for understanding the intersection of law, morality, and racial dynamics in early American history.

In the Heat of the Night

 In the Heat of the Night is a 1967 film that stars Sidney Poitier and Rod Steiger. This film focuses on the investigation of a murder while also examining the stereotypes and biases prevalent in the south during the separate but equal era. 

This film highlights the harsh discrimination and difficulties that emancipated slaves faced while attempting to bult lives for themselves. The main plat revolves around Virgil Tibbs, a Philadelphia based investigator. Officer Gillespie arrests him because he suspects he committed a murders: but after he is proven innocent, he works with the other cops to identify the genuine murderer

In the background of this major plot are the lives of women who are also fighting to create a living for themselves. During this period, the fight for equal rights among races was gaining traction, but the fight for equal rights between men and women had only recently begun. 

Women in the Jim Crow South had little rights and were frequently looked down upon by their male counterparts. This extended not only to African American and poor women, but also to affluent women. They were all considered inferior and had to struggle for recognition. 

Mrs. Colbert exemplifies this fight for respect, as she fights for a competent investigation into her husband death. Because she is a woman, her opinion is pushed to the side, and she is expected to simply accept what the police believe. However, she recognizes that they are missing something and encourages them to keep exploring for more answers finally, she must threaten the town's jobs in order for them to listen to her. Mrs. Colbert had to fight for respect and she was well-off, making it even worse for girls like Delores Purdy. Girls like Delores are viewed as little more then objects. She was pushed around by all the males in her life, including her brother and the man who impregnated her. Her perspective of her own life was irrelevant. Nobody listened to her until she spoke exactly what they wanted to hear.

This film sheds light not only on the treatment of freed slaves in the Jim Crow South but also on how women were silenced and had to continually battle for the life they wanted to live. 

The University of California vs. Bakke

Ladies and Gentlemen, Your Honor, I stand before you today to discuss the economic standings in the case of The Board of Regents of the University of California vs. Bakke. From an economic perspective, this case highlights concerns about the fairness, efficiency, and long-term implications of race-based admissions policies.

One of the primary economic arguments is that admissions should be based on merit—specifically, academic qualifications like test scores, grades, and overall performance. By prioritizing race, University of California is undermining the concept of economic efficiency in education. Universities and medical schools, as institutions designed to train skilled professionals, should select students based on the ability to succeed academically and professionally. From an economic standpoint, this ensures that the most qualified individuals are trained and enter the workforce, maximizing productivity and contributing to economic growth.

In the context of medical school, where the stakes are high, admitting students based on qualifications such as test scores and academic performance maximizes the likelihood of graduating skilled professionals who can contribute to society. We  argue that Bakke's higher test scores and GPA make him more academically qualified than some minority candidates admitted under the quota system. For Bakke, this system of admission represented an inefficient allocation of resources, it allowed less qualified individuals to take spots that could have been filled by those better equipped to succeed academically and professionally. In an economic sense, this reduced the overall value and output of the medical education system by not selecting the most capable students.

Our argument also touches on the potential for market inefficiencies created by better treatment in higher education. The labor market, particularly in fields like medicine, is highly competitive, and those who are admitted to medical schools based on academic merit are likely to produce the best economic outcomes in terms of productivity and professional success. By admitting students based on race, we argue that universities are undermining the overall competitiveness of their students. This could result in a less efficient medical labor market over time, as students admitted via quotas might be less prepared for the demands of medical practice, reducing overall professional competence and productivity in the field.

From an economic standpoint, this argument in the Board of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke was grounded in the principles of fair competition, efficiency, and maximizing human capital. We believed that the university's race-based admissions policies led to inefficiencies in the allocation of educational resources, hindering both his own economic mobility and the broader economic benefits that would have arisen from admitting the most qualified candidates. While acknowledging the need for diversity and opportunity, we contend that the best way to promote economic growth and fairness in education is through merit-based admissions, where race would not be a primary factor in determining who has access to high-quality education and professional opportunities.

Reconstruction Video

The American Reconstruction Era in history began in 1863 and was characterized by violence. The violence stemmed from the attempt to integrate newly freed African Americans into a segregated society. These African Americans faced strong opposition from white Southerners who refused to accept the turning of the times. Reconstruction intended to reunite the Southern states with the Union and provided a status for newly liberated slaves. Many African Americans found optimism during this time as they looked for their families through advertisements, claimed their rights through the Reconstruction Amendments and rebuilt their lives following the Civil War. However, white Southerners immediately rejected the idea that society could function without racial barriers. 

The resistance used violence, including rioting, as well as restrictive regulations know as the Black Codes, to control black labor while maintaining white dominance. The Ku Klux Klan was formed to restore their lives and social order prior to the civil war and they operated similarly to the slave patrols. The backlash exposed the profound prejudice that persisted in the country after the abolition of slavery and the governments promises of citizenship for Black Americans 

Even after the civil war, Black Americans struggled with their rights well into the 1960s, demonstrating Reconstruction's failures to keep its promises. The goal was that after the 14th Amendment, Black families would be granted citizenship. However, racism and violence from white Southerners made life as an equal citizen difficult. From three-day race riots in Memphis to a white mob in New Orleans that slaughtered over 40 people, events like Emmett Till highlighted the geography of this time period. As Fredrick Douglass and others noticed, the political landscape was generally hostile and nonprotective of Back individuals as a result of Southern Democrats like Andrew Johnson. Their priorities and interests lie with rich white landowners above people who had been emancipated. 

The legacy of Reconstruction serves as a reminder of the fragile nature of development within the system. While this period provided a vision of what equality many look like, it also created the framework for long term racial tensions and conflicts, which shaped civil rights movements for decades